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Category: Computer Networks

UDP Protocol | UDP Header | UDP Header Format

Computer Networks

Transport Layer Protocols-

There are mainly two transport layer protocols that are used on the Internet-

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

In this article, we will discuss about User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

Learn about Transmission Control Protocol.

UDP Protocol-

UDP is short for User Datagram Protocol.
It is the simplest transport layer protocol.
It has been designed to send data packets over the Internet.
It simply takes the datagram from the network layer, attaches its header and sends it to the user.

Characteristics of UDP-

It is a connectionless protocol.
It is a stateless protocol.
It is an unreliable protocol.
It is a fast protocol.
It offers the minimal transport service.
It is almost a null protocol.
It does not guarantee in order delivery.
It does not provide congestion control mechanism.
It is a good protocol for data flowing in one direction.

Need of UDP-

TCP proves to be an overhead for certain kinds of applications.
The Connection Establishment Phase, Connection Termination Phase etc of TCP are time consuming.
To avoid this overhead, certain applications which require fast speed and less overhead use UDP.

UDP Header-

The following diagram represents the UDP Header Format-

1. Source Port-

Source Port is a 16 bit field.
It identifies the port of the sending application.

2. Destination Port-

Destination Port is a 16 bit field.
It identifies the port of the receiving application.

3. Length-

Length is a 16 bit field.
It identifies the combined length of UDP Header and Encapsulated data.

Length = Length of UDP Header + Length of encapsulated data

4. Checksum-

Checksum is a 16 bit field used for error control.
It is calculated on UDP Header, encapsulated data and IP pseudo header.
Checksum calculation is not mandatory in UDP.

Applications Using UDP-

Following applications use UDP-

Applications which require one response for one request use UDP. Example- DNS.
Routing Protocols like RIP and OSPF use UDP because they have very small amount of data to be transmitted.
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) uses UDP to send very small sized files.
Broadcasting and multicasting applications use UDP.
Streaming applications like multimedia, video conferencing etc use UDP since they require speed over reliability.
Real time applications like chatting and online games use UDP.
Management protocols like SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) use UDP.
Bootp / DHCP uses UDP.
Other protocols that use UDP are- Kerberos, Network Time Protocol (NTP), Network News Protocol (NNP), Quote of the day protocol etc.

Important Notes-

Note-01:

Size of UDP Header= 8 bytes

Unlike TCP header, the size of UDP header is fixed.
This is because in UDP header, all the fields are of definite size.
Size of UDP Header = Sum of the size of all the fields = 8 bytes.

Note-02:

UDP is almost a null protocol.

This is because-

UDP provides very limited services.
The only services it provides are checksumming of data and multiplexing by port number.

Note-03:

UDP is an unreliable protocol.

This is because-

UDP does not guarantee the delivery of datagram to its respective user (application).
The lost datagrams are not retransmitted by UDP.

Note-04:

Checksum calculation is not mandatory in UDP.

This is because-

UDP is already an unreliable protocol and error checking does not make much sense.
Also, time is saved and transmission becomes faster by avoiding to calculate it.

It may be noted-

To disable the checksum, the field value is set to all 0’s.
If the computed checksum is zero, the field value is set to all 1’s.

Note-05:

UDP does not guarantee in order delivery.

This is because-

UDP allows out of order delivery to ensure better performance.
If some data is lost on the way, it does not call for retransmission and keeps transmitting data.

Note-06:

Application layer can perform some tasks through UDP.

Application layer can do the following tasks through UDP-

Trace Route
Record Route
Time stamp

When required,

Application layer conveys to the UDP which conveys to the IP datagram.
UDP acts like a messenger between the application layer and the IP datagram.

Also Read- TCP Header | IPv4 Header

PRACTICE PROBLEMS BASED ON UDP HEADER-

Problem-01:

Which field is optional in UDP?

Checksum
Destination port
Length
None

Solution-

Checksum calculation is not mandatory in UDP.
Thus, Option (A) is correct.

Problem-02:

The pseudo header of IP is used in-

Only TCP
Only UDP
Both TCP and UDP
None

Solution-

IP Pseudo header is used in both TCP and UDP while calculating checksum.
Thus, Option (C) is correct.

Problem-03:

Broadcasting applications like WHOD (who daemon on UNIX) uses what transport layer protocol?

TCP
UDP
Either TCP or UDP
IGMP

Solution-

Broadcasting and multicasting applications use UDP.
Thus, Option (B) is correct.

To gain better understanding about UDP Header,

Watch this Video Lecture

Next Article- Application Layer Protocols

Get more notes and other study material of Computer Networks.

Watch video lectures by visiting our YouTube channel LearnVidFun.

Token Ring | Token Passing | Practice Problems

Computer Networks

PRACTICE PROBLEMS BASED ON TOKEN RING AND TOKEN PASSING-

Before you go through this article, make sure that you have gone through the previous article on Token Passing.

Problem-01:

Token ring station operates in which of the following modes?

Transit mode
Listen mode
Bypass mode and Receive mode
All of the above

Solution-

In transmit mode, a station transmits the data.
In listen mode, a station listens from other station(s).
In bypass mode, a station simply bypasses the data packet if it is not meant for it.
In receive mode, a station receives the data packet if it is destined to it.

Therefore, a token ring station operates in all these modes.

Thus, Option (D) is correct.

Problem-02:

Efficiency of the token ring is high if-

Reinsert the token after receiving the last bit of the frame
Reinsert the token after receiving the last bit of the header
Reinsert the token after last bit of the data packet is transferred
Reinsert the token after last bit of the header is transferred

Solution-

There are two strategies used in token ring- Early Token Reinsertion (ETR) and Delayed Token Reinsertion (DTR).
Efficiency of token ring is high in Early Token Reinsertion (ETR).

Thus, Option (C) is correct.

Problem-03:

The sending station in IEEE 802.5 sets the address recognized (A) bit and frame copied (C) bit in MAC header as

Solution-

IEEE 802.5 is token ring.
Sending station sets both the available bit and copied bit as 0.
These bits are modified by the receiving station.
If the receiving station is available, it sets the Available bit to 1.
If the receiving station successfully copies the data, it sets the Copied bit to 1.

Thus, Option (B) is correct.

Problem-04:

Which of the following fields in 802.5 MAC header is not included in CRC or FCS?

FC
Data field
FS
SA

Solution-

IEEE 802.5 is token ring.
Frame Status (FS) field consists of the Available bit and Copied bit.
These two bits are modified by the receiving station.
So, CRC is not computed on Frame Status field otherwise receiving station will have to bear the overhead of recomputing the CRC.

Thus, Option (C) is correct.

Problem-05:

What type of acknowledgement system is used in 802.5?

Cumulative ACK
Independent ACK
Piggybacking ACK
None

Solution-

IEEE 802.5 is token ring.
The two bits- Available bit and Copied bit acts as the acknowledgement for the sending station.
The value of these bits suggests to the sending station that whether the receiving station has successfully copied the data or not.
Because the two bits are contained in the data frame, so we can say that piggybacked acknowledgements are used in token ring.

Thus, Option (C) is correct.

Problem-06:

In token ring, ______ field is present only in the data / command frame but not in the token frame.

Solution-

Frame status (FS) field is present only in the data / command frame.
A token frame consists of only 3 fields- SD, AC and ED.

Thus, Option (D) is correct.

Problem-07:

Consider a token ring with latency 500 μsec and packet size of 1500 bytes. What is the effective throughput rate for both single active host and for many active hosts that can be achieved if the ring has 3 Mbps bandwidth? Assume the strategy used is delayed token reinsertion.

2.4 Mbps and 3 Mbps
2.4 Mbps and 2 Mbps
2 Mbps and 3 Mbps
2.4 Mbps and 2.67 Mbps

Solution-

Given-

Ring latency = 500 μsec
Packet Size = 1500 bytes
Bandwidth = 3 Mbps
Strategy used is Delayed Token Reinsertion (DTR)

Efficiency of Delayed Token Reinsertion (DTR) strategy is-

Calculating Transmission delay-

We know,

Transmission delay (T_t)

= Packet size / Bandwidth

= 1500 bytes / 3 Mbps

= (1500 x 8 bits) / (3 x 10⁶ bits per sec)

= 4000 μsec

Calculating value of ‘a’-

We know,

a = T_p / T_t

a = Latency / T_t

a = 500 μsec / 4000 μsec

a = 0.125

Calculating Throughput for single active host-

For single active host, N = 1.

Substituting N = 1 in efficiency formula, we get-

Efficiency (η)

= 1 / (1 + 2a)

= 1 / (1 + 2 x 0.125)

= 1 / 1.25

= 0.8

Now,

Throughput

= Efficiency (η) x Bandwidth

= 0.8 x 3 Mbps

= 2.4 Mbps

Calculating Throughput for many active host-

For many active host, N = ∞.

Substituting N = ∞ in efficiency formula, we get-

Efficiency (η)

= 1 / (1 + a)

= 1 / (1 + 0.125)

= 1 / 1.125

= 0.89

Now,

Throughput

= Efficiency (η) x Bandwidth

= 0.89 x 3 Mbps

= 2.67 Mbps

Thus, Option (D) is correct.

Problem-08:

In 802.5, the condition to find out the minimum size of the ring is-

Latency of the ring = Transmission delay of the data frame
Latency of the ring = Transmission delay of the token frame
Latency of the ring = RTT
Latency > RTT

Solution-

IEEE 802.5 is token ring.
The condition to find out the minimum size of the ring is-

Latency of the ring >= Transmission delay of the token frame

In worst case, all the stations goes down and only the monitor station is alive.
Monitor station sends the token and the token comes back to it.
To avoid the collision between the first and the last bit of the token, propagation delay of the token must be at least equal to its transmission delay.

Thus, Option (B) is correct.

Problem-09:

The stacking station is a station in 802.5 and it can be described as-

when it drains the frame and creates a token, it then stores both the old and new priority of the token
A station which stack the token till it gets the last bit of the token
It is nothing but monitor station
None of the above

Solution-

IEEE 802.5 is token ring.
A station which increases the priority of the token should next decrease the priority of the token.
Otherwise once the priority of the token reaches the highest value, it would ever remain there and thus only the station with the highest packet would drain (take) the token and use it.
Thus, a stacking station must remember both the old and new priorities so that when it later receives the token with new priority, it changes it to old priority.
This is implemented by using 2 stacks. Each station maintains 2 stacks where one station keeps track of the old priority and other stack keeps track of the new priority.

Thus, Option (A) is correct.

Problem-10:

In early token release, the station releases a token as soon as it completes the frame transmission whether or not the frame header has returned to the station, then what will be the priority of the token released?

The priority in the frame that completes frame transmission
Without changing the priority, token will be released
Default priority is used
The priority in the reservation field of the most recently received frame

Solution-

Option (D) is correct.

Problem-11:

Find the efficiency of the ring where data rate of the link is 4 Mbps, number of stations are 20, separated by 100 meters and bit delay in each station is 2.5 bits. Assume early token reinsertion with packet size of 1000 bits and transmission speed is 2 x 10⁸ m/sec.

Solution-

Given-

Data rate = Bandwidth = 4 Mbps
Number of stations = 20
Distance between two stations = 100 meters
Bit delay = 25 bits
Packet size = 1000 bits
Strategy used is Early Token Reinsertion (ETR)

Calculating length of ring wire-

Total length of ring wire

= Number of stations x Distance between 2 stations

= 20 x 100 meters

= 2000 meters

= 2 km

Calculating Transmission delay-

Transmission delay (T_t)

= Packet size / Bandwidth

= 1000 bits / 4 Mbps

= 1000 bits / (4 x 10⁶ bits per sec)

= 250 μsec

Calculating Propagation delay-

Propagation delay (T_t)

= Distance / Speed

= 2 km / (2 x 10⁸ m/sec)

= (2 x 10³ m) / (2 x 10⁸ m/sec)

= 10^-5 sec

= 10 μsec

Calculating Bit delay in seconds-

Bit delay

= 25 bits

= 2.5 bits / 4 Mbps

= 25 bits / (4 x 10⁶ bits per sec)

= 0.625 μsec

Calculating Ring latency-

Ring latency

= Propagation delay + N x Bit delay

= 10 μsec + 20 x 0.625 μsec

= 10 μsec + 12.5 μsec

= 22.5 μsec

Calculating value of ‘a’-

= Ring latency / T_t

= 22.5 μsec / 250 μsec

= 0.09

Calculating Efficiency-

Efficiency(η)

= 1 / (1 + a/N)

= 1 / (1 + 0.09 / 20)

= 1 / 1.0045

= 0.9955

= 99.55%

Problem-12:

A token ring LAN network interconnects M stations using Star Topology in the following way. All the input and output lines of the token ring station interface are connected to a cabinet where the actual ring is placed. Suppose that distance from each station to a cabinet is 100 m and ring latency per station is 8 bits, packets are 1250 B and bandwidth is 25 Mbps.

Find the ring latency normalized to packet transmission time.
Find the minimum number of packets transmitted by stations, if stations are allowed to transmit an unlimited number of packet / token. (v = 2 x 10⁸ m/sec)

Solution-

Based on the given information, the token ring LAN network looks like-

(The sketch is for 4 stations)

Part-01:

Calculating Transmission delay-

Transmission delay

= Packet size / Bandwidth

= 1250 B / 25 Mbps

= (1250 x 8 bits) / (25 x 10⁶ bits per sec)

= 400 μsec

Calculating Propagation delay-

Propagation delay

= Distance / Speed

= (200 x M meters) / (2 x 10⁸ m/sec)

= (200 x M) / (2 x 10⁸) sec

= 100 x M x 10^-8 sec

= M μsec

Calculating Bit delay in seconds-

Bit delay

= Ring latency per station

= 8 bits

= 8 bits / 25 Mbps

= 0.32 μsec

Calculating Ring latency-

Ring latency

= Propagation delay + N x Bit delay

= M μsec + M x 0.32 μsec

= 1.32 x M μsec

Calculating Ring latency normalized to packet transmission delay-

Ring latency normalized to packet transmission time

= Ring latency / Packet transmission time

= 1.32 x M μsec / 400 μsec

= 0.0033 x M

Part-02:

The number of packets a station can transmit after holding a token depends on Token Holding Time and the strategy used.
Since no information is given in the question about the Time Holding Time, so we assume that there is no restriction on holding the token.
Thus, a station can send infinite number of packets after getting a token.

Problem-13:

A very heavily loaded 1 km long, 10 Mbps token ring has a propagation speed of 200 m/μsec. 50 stations are uniformly spaced around the ring. Data frames are 256 bits including 32 bits of overhead. Acknowledgements are piggybacked onto the data frames and are thus included as spare bits within the data frames and are effectively free. The token is 8 bits long. Is the effective data rate of this ring higher or lower than the effective data rate of a 10 Mbps CSMA / CD network? Assume ‘Early Token Release’ policy.

Solution-

Remember

Token Ring always beats the Ethernet in terms of effective bandwidth.

Analysis-

Efficiency of CSMA / CD-

Efficiency of token ring in early token retransmission is given by-

Efficiency(η) = 1 / (1 + 6.44 x a)

This expression is valid when number of stations are very large i.e. N → ∞

Efficiency of Token Ring-

Case-01:

Efficiency of token ring in early token retransmission is given by-

Efficiency(η) = 1 / (1 + a/N)

When N → ∞, Efficiency(η) = 100%

Case-02:

Efficiency of token ring in delayed token retransmission is given by-

Efficiency(η) = 1 / [1 + a(1 + 1/N)]

When N → ∞, Efficiency(η) = 1 / (1+a)

The above analysis clearly shows-

Efficiency of Token Ring in ETR > Efficiency of Token Ring in DTR > Efficiency of Token Ring in CSMA / CD.

Problem-14:

A fibre optic token ring used as a MAN is 200 km long and runs at 100 Mbps. After sending a frame, a station drains the frame from the ring before regenerating the token. The signal propagation speed in the fibre is 200,000 km/sec and maximum frame size is 1 KB. What is the maximum efficiency at N=1?

Solution-

Given-

Distance = 200 km
Bandwidth = 100 Mbps
Propagation speed = 200,000 km/sec = 2 x 10⁸ m/sec
Frame size = 1 KB
Number of stations = 1
Strategy used is Delayed Token Reinsertion

Calculating Transmission delay-

Transmission delay

= Frame size / Bandwidth

= 1 KB / 100 Mbps

= (1 x 2¹⁰ x 8 bits) / (100 x 10⁶ bits per sec)

= 81.92 μsec

Calculating Propagation delay-

Propagation delay

= Distance / Speed

= 200 km / (2 x 10⁸ m/sec)

= (200 x 10³ m) / (2 x 10⁸ m/sec)

= 10^-3 sec

= 1 msec

Calculating value of ‘a’-

= T_p / T_t

= 1 msec / 81.92 μsec

= 0.0122 x 10³

= 12.2

Calculating Efficiency-

Efficiency(η)

= 1 / [1 + a x (1+ 1/N)]

= 1 / [1 + 12.2 x (1+1)]

= 1 / 25.4

= 0.0394

= 3.94%

The reason behind this much less efficiency is that the distance is too large here.
Ethernet and Token Ring are meant for LANs.
If used for MANs or WANs, the efficiency will fall drastically.

Problem-15:

At a propagation speed of 200 m/μsec, what is the effective length added to a ring by a bit delay at each repeater or station for-

1 Mbps line
40 Mbps line

Solution-

Part-01:

Effective length added to a ring by a bit delay

= 1 bit / 1 Mbps

= 1 μsec

= 1 μsec x 200 m/μsec

= 200 m

Part-02:

Effective length added to a ring by a bit delay

= 1 bit / 40 Mbps

= 0.025 μsec

= 0.025 μsec x 200 m/μsec

= 5 m

Problem-16:

Consider a 10 Mbps token ring LAN with a ring latency of 400 μs. A host that needs to transmit seizes the toke. Then it sends a frame of 1000 bytes, removes the frame after it has circulated all around the ring and finally releases the token. This process is repeated for every frame. Assuming that only a single host wishes to transmit, the effective data rate is _____ .

1 Mbps
2 Mbps
5 Mbps
6 Mbps

Solution-

Given-

Bandwidth = 10 Mbps
Ring latency = 400 μsec
Frame size = 1000 bytes
Number of stations = 1
Strategy used is Delayed Toke Reinsertion

Calculating Transmission delay-

Transmission delay

= Frame size / Bandwidth

= 1000 bytes / 10 Mbps

= (1000 x 8 bits) / (10 x 10⁶ bits per sec)

= 800 μsec

Calculating value of ‘a’-

= Ring latency / T_t

= 400 μsec / 800 μsec

= 0.5

Calculating Efficiency-

Efficiency(η)

= 1 / [1 + a x (1+ 1/N)]

= 1 / [1 + 0.5 x (1+1)]

= 1 / 2

= 0.50

= 50%

Calculating Effective data rate-

Effective data rate

= Throughput

= Efficiency(η) x Bandwidth

= 0.5 x 10 Mbps

= 5 Mbps

Thus, Option (C) is correct.

Next Article- Aloha | Pure Aloha | Slotted Aloha

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CSMA CD | BackOff Algorithm | Problems

Computer Networks

CSMA / CD Protocol-

Before you go through this article, make sure that you have gone through the previous article on CSMA / CD Protocol.

We have discussed-

CSMA / CD allows a station to transmit data if it senses the carrier free.
After undergoing collision, station waits for random back off time before transmitting again.
Back Off Algorithm is used to calculate back off time.

Also Read- Back Off Algorithm

In this article, we will discuss practice problems based on CSMA / CD and Back Off Algorithm.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS BASED ON CSMA / CD AND BACK OFF ALGORITHM-

Problem-01:

After the k^th consecutive collision, each colliding station waits for a random time chosen from the interval-

(0 to 2^k) x RTT
(0 to 2^k-1) x RTT
(0 to 2^k-1) x Maximum Propagation delay
(0 to 2^k-1) x Maximum Propagation delay

Solution-

Clearly, Option (B) is correct.

Problem-02:

In a CSMA / CD network running at 1 Gbps over 1 km cable with no repeaters, the signal speed in the cable is 200000 km/sec. What is minimum frame size?

Solution-

Given-

Bandwidth = 1 Gbps
Distance = 1 km
Speed = 200000 km/sec

Calculating Propagation Delay-

Propagation delay (T_p)

= Distance / Propagation speed

= 1 km / (200000 km/sec)

= 0.5 x 10^-5 sec

= 5 x 10^-6 sec

Calculating Minimum Frame Size-

Minimum frame size

= 2 x Propagation delay x Bandwidth

= 2 x 5 x 10^-6 sec x 10⁹ bits per sec

= 10000 bits

Problem-03:

A 2 km long broadcast LAN has 10⁷ bps bandwidth and uses CSMA / CD. The signal travels along the wire at 2 x 10⁸ m/sec. What is the minimum packet size that can be used on this network?

50 B
100 B
200 B
None of the above

Solution-

Given-

Distance = 2 km
Bandwidth = 10⁷ bps
Speed = 2 x 10⁸ m/sec

Calculating Propagation Delay-

Propagation delay (T_p)

= Distance / Propagation speed

= 2 km / (2 x 10⁸ m/sec)

= 2 x 10³ m / (2 x 10⁸ m/sec)

= 10^-5 sec

Calculating Minimum Frame Size-

Minimum frame size

= 2 x Propagation delay x Bandwidth

= 2 x 10^-5 sec x 10⁷ bits per sec

= 200 bits or 25 bytes

Thus, Option (D) is correct.

Problem-04:

A and B are the only two stations on Ethernet. Each has a steady queue of frames to send. Both A and B attempts to transmit a frame, collide and A wins first back off race. At the end of this successful transmission by A, both A and B attempt to transmit and collide. The probability that A wins the second back off race is ___ .

0.5
0.625
0.75
1.0

Solution-

According to question, we have-

1st Transmission Attempt-

Both the stations A and B attempts to transmit a frame.
A collision occurs.
Back Off Algorithm runs.
Station A wins and successfully transmits its 1^st data packet.

2nd Transmission Attempt-

Station A attempts to transmit its 2^nd data packet.
Station B attempts to retransmit its 1^st data packet.
A collision occurs.

Now,

We have been asked the probability of station A to transmit its 2^nd data packet successfully after 2^nd collision.
After the 2^nd collision occurs, we have-

At Station A-

2^nd data packet of station A undergoes collision for the 1^st time.
So, collision number for the 2^nd data packet of station A = 1.
Now, station A randomly chooses a number from the range [0,2¹-1] = [0,1].
Then, station A waits for back off time and then attempts to retransmit its data packet.

At Station B-

1^st data packet of station B undergoes collision for the 2^nd time.
So, collision number for the 1^st data packet of station B = 2.
Now, station B randomly chooses a number from the range [0,2²-1] = [0,3].
Then, station B waits for back off time and then attempts to retransmit its data packet.

Following 8 cases are possible-

Station A	Station B	Remark
0	0	Collision
0	1	A wins
0	2	A wins
0	3	A wins
1	0	B wins
1	1	Collision
1	2	A wins
1	3	A wins

From here,

Probability of A winning the 2^nd back off race = 5 / 8 = 0.625.
Thus, Option (B) is correct.

Problem-05:

Suppose nodes A and B are on same 10 Mbps Ethernet segment and the propagation delay between two nodes is 225 bit times. Suppose A and B send frames at t=0, the frames collide then at what time, they finish transmitting a jam signal. Assume a 48 bit jam signal.

Solution-

Propagation delay (T_p)

= 225 bit times

= 225 bit / 10 Mbps

= 22.5 x 10^-6 sec

= 22.5 μsec

At t = 0,

Nodes A and B start transmitting their frame.
Since both the stations start simultaneously, so collision occurs at the mid way.
Time after which collision occurs = Half of propagation delay.
So, time after which collision occurs = 22.5 μsec / 2 = 11.25 μsec.

At t = 11.25 μsec,

After collision occurs at t = 11.25 μsec, collided signals start travelling back.
Collided signals reach the respective nodes after time = Half of propagation delay
Collided signals reach the respective nodes after time = 22.5 μsec / 2 = 11.25 μsec.
Thus, at t = 22.5 μsec, collided signals reach the respective nodes.

At t = 22.5 μsec,

As soon as nodes discover the collision, they immediately release the jam signal.
Time taken to finish transmitting the jam signal = 48 bit time = 48 bits/ 10 Mbps = 4.8 μsec.

Thus,

Time at which the jam signal is completely transmitted

= 22.5 μsec + 4.8 μsec

= 27.3 μsec or 273 bit times

Problem-06:

Suppose nodes A and B are attached to opposite ends of the cable with propagation delay of 12.5 ms. Both nodes attempt to transmit at t=0. Frames collide and after first collision, A draws k=0 and B draws k=1 in the exponential back off protocol. Ignore the jam signal. At what time (in seconds), is A’s packet completely delivered at B if bandwidth of the link is 10 Mbps and packet size is 1000 bits.

Solution-

Given-

Propagation delay = 12.5 ms
Bandwidth = 10 Mbps
Packet size = 1000 bits

Time At Which Collision Occurs-

Collision occurs at the mid way after time

= Half of Propagation delay

= 12.5 ms / 2

= 6.25 ms

Thus, collision occurs at time t = 6.25 ms.

Time At Which Collision is Discovered-

Collision is discovered in the time it takes the collided signals to reach the nodes

= Half of Propagation delay

= 12.5 ms / 2

= 6.25 ms

Thus, collision is discovered at time t = 6.25 ms + 6.25 ms = 12.5 ms.

Scene After Collision-

After the collision is discovered,

Both the nodes wait for some random back off time.
A chooses k=0 and then waits for back off time = 0 x 25 ms = 0 ms.
B chooses k=1 and then waits for back off time = 1 x 25 ms = 25 ms.
From here, A begins retransmission immediately while B waits for 25 ms.

Waiting Time For A-

After winning the back off race, node A gets the authority to retransmit immediately.
But node A does not retransmit immediately.
It waits for the channel to clear from the last bit aborted by it on discovering the collision.
Time taken by the last bit to get off the channel = Propagation delay = 12.5 ms.
So, node A waits for time = 12.5 ms and then starts the retransmission.
Thus, node A starts the retransmission at time t = 12.5 ms + 12.5 ms = 25 ms.

Time Taken in Delivering Packet To Node B-

Time taken to deliver the packet to node B

= Transmission delay + Propagation delay

= (1000 bits / 10 Mbps) + 12.5 ms

= 100 μs + 12.5 ms

= 0.1 ms + 12.5 ms

= 12.6 ms

Thus, At time t = 25 ms + 12.6 ms = 37.6 ms, the packet is delivered to node B.

Problem-07:

The network consists of 4 hosts distributed as shown below-

Assume this network uses CSMA / CD and signal travels with a speed of 3 x 10⁵ km/sec. If sender sends at 1 Mbps, what could be the minimum size of the packet?

600 bits
400 bits
6000 bits
1500 bits

Solution-

CSMA / CD is a Access Control Method.
It is used to provide the access to stations to a broadcast link.
In the given network, all the links are point to point.
So, there is actually no need of implementing CSMA / CD.
Stations can transmit whenever they want to transmit.

In CSMA / CD,

The condition to detect collision is-

Packet size >= 2 x (distance / speed) x Bandwidth

To solve the question,

We assume that a packet of same length has to be used in the entire network.
To get the minimum length of the packet, what distance we should choose?
To get the minimum length of the packet, we should choose the minimum distance.
But, then collision would be detected only in the links having distance less than or equal to that minimum distance.
For the links, having distance greater than the minimum distance, collision would not be detected.
So, we choose the maximum distance so that collision can be detected in all the links of the network.

So, we use the values-

Distance = 90 km
Speed = 3 x 10⁵ km/sec
Bandwidth = 1 Mbps

Substituting these values, we get-

Minimum size of data packet

= 2 x (90 km / 3 x 10⁵ km per sec) x 1 Mbps

= 2 x 30 x 10^-5 sec x 10⁶ bits per sec

= 600 bits

Thus, Option (A) is correct.

Next Article- Token Passing | Access Control Method

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Ethernet in Networking | Practice Problems

Computer Networks

Ethernet in Networking-

Before you go through this article, make sure that you have gone through the previous article on Ethernet.

We have discussed-

Ethernet is one of the standard LAN technologies used to build wired LANs.
Ethernet uses bus topology in which all the stations are connected to a half duplex link.
Ethernet uses CSMA / CD as an access control method.

In this article, we will discuss practice problems based on Ethernet.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS BASED ON ETHERNET-

Problem-01:

Which of the following characteristic is most basic to LAN?

Bit rate
Delay x Bandwidth Product
Geographical distance
Cost

Solution-

Geographical distance is the basic criteria on which networks are classified.
On the basis of geographical distance, networks are classified as LAN, MAN, WAN.
Thus,Option (C) is correct.

Problem-02:

On an Ethernet LAN when a collision is detected, the sending station-

continues to send the transmission
temporarily quits the transmission
notifies the destination of an error
permanently quits the transmission

Solution-

Ethernet uses CSMA / CD as access control method.
On detecting a collision, the sending station temporarily quits the transmission.
Transmitting station waits for Back Off time and then tries again.
Thus, Option (B) is correct.

Problem-03:

Ethernet implements _________ service for its operation.

connection oriented
connection less
Both A and B
Either A or B

Solution-

REMEMBER

Connection oriented service involves allocation of the dedicated resources.
Connection less service does not involve allocation of dedicated resources.
TCP and Virtual Circuits are connection oriented services.
IP, Ethernet and Token Ring are connection less services.
Datagrams are connection less, that is why IP is connection less.

When an Ethernet frame is sent,

Destination is never expected to reserve the buffer or any other resource for the incoming frame.
The data is simply dumped at the destination side.
So, it is connectionless.
Thus, Option (B) is correct.

Problem-04:

The collision domain of Fast Ethernet is limited to ______ meters.

2.5
25
250
2500

Solution-

Collision domain defines the number of stations that can get involved in the collision when connected to a LAN.
In the given question, collision domain refers to maximum distance a LAN can run to detect the collisions.
Ethernet uses CSMA / CD as access control method.

In CSMA / CD, condition to detect collisions is-

Distance <= (Length x speed) / (2 x bandwidth)

On substituting the values, we get the value of distance.

REMEMBER

For normal Ethernet, collision domain = 2500 meters.
For Fast Ethernet, collision domain = 250 meters.
For Gigabit Ethernet, collision domain = 25 meters.

Thus, Option (C) is correct.

Problem-05:

The efficiency of Ethernet-

increases when propagation delay and transmission delay are low
increases when propagation delay and transmission delay are high
increases when propagation delay is low and transmission delay is high
increases when propagation delay is high and transmission delay is low

Solution-

Efficiency of Ethernet = 1 / ( 1 + 6.44a) where a = T_p / T_t.
Thus, Option (C) is correct.

Problem-06:

What is the baud rate of the standard 10 Mbps 802.3 LAN?

20 mega baud
10 mega baud
25 mega baud
40 mega baud

Solution-

LAN uses Manchester Encoding Technique where-

Baud rate = 2 x Bit rate

For 10 Mbps,

Baud rate

= 2 x 10 mega baud

= 20 mega baud

Thus, Option (A) is correct.

Problem-07:

Consider a 10 Mbps Ethernet LAN that has stations attached to a 2.5 km long coaxial cable. Given that the transmission speed is 2.3 x 10⁸ m/sec, the packet size is 128 bytes out of which 30 bytes are overhead, find the effective transmission rate and maximum rate at which the network can send data.

Solution-

Given-

Bandwidth = 10 Mbps
Distance = 2.5 km
Transmission speed = 2.3 x 10⁸ m/sec
Total packet size = 128 bytes
Overhead = 30 bytes

Calculating Transmission Delay-

Transmission delay (T_t)

= Packet size / Bandwidth

= 128 bytes / 10 Mbps

= (128 x 8 bits) / (10 x 10⁶ bits per sec)

= 1024 / 10⁷ sec

= 102.4 μsec

Calculating Propagation Delay-

Propagation delay (T_p)

= Distance / Speed

= 2.5 km / (2.3 x 10⁸ m/sec)

= (2.5 x 10³ m) / (2.3 x 10⁸ m/sec)

= 1.08 x 10^-5 sec

= 10.8 μsec

Calculating Value of ‘a’-

= T_p / T_t

= 10.8 μsec / 102.4 μsec

= 0.105

Calculating Efficiency-

Efficiency(η)

= 1 / (1 + 6.44 x a)

= 1 / (1 + 6.44 x 0.105)

= 1 / 1.67

= 0.59

= 59%

Calculating Maximum Rate-

Maximum rate or Throughput

= Efficiency x Bandwidth

= 0.59 x 10 Mbps

= 5.9 Mbps

Calculating Effective Transmission Rate-

Effective transmission rate

= Throughput x (128-30 / 128)

= 5.9 Mbps x (98 / 128)

= 0.77 x 5.9 Mbps

= 4.52 Mbps

Problem-08:

The following frame transition diagram shows an exchange of Ethernet frames between two computers, A and B connected via a 10BT Hub. Each frame sent by computer A contains 1500 B of Ethernet payload data, while each frame sent by computer B contains 40 B of Ethernet payload data. Calculate the average utilization of the media during this exchange.

10%
1.7%
20%
15.2%

Solution-

Calculating Data Sent By Computer A in One Frame-

Given-

Each frame sent by computer A contains 1500 B of Ethernet payload data.
This is divided as: 20 bytes of IP Header + 20 bytes of TCP Header + 1460 bytes of data.

So, Total bytes sent by computer A in one frame

= Preamble + SFD + Ethernet Header + Ethernet Payload + CRC

= 7 bytes + 1 byte + 14 bytes + 1500 bytes + 4 bytes

= 1526 bytes

Calculating Data Sent By Computer A in 0.6 Seconds:

Computer A sends 8 frames in 0.6 seconds.

So, Total bytes sent by computer A in 0.6 seconds

= 8 x 1526 bytes

= 12208 bytes

Calculating Data Sent By Computer B in One Frame-

Given-

Each frame sent by computer B contains 40 B of Ethernet payload data.
This is divided as: 20 bytes of IP Header + 20 bytes of TCP Header + 0 bytes of data.
Since minimum data in the payload field of Ethernet must 46 bytes. So, extra 6 bytes are padded.

So, Total bytes sent by computer B in one frame

= Preamble + SFD + Ethernet Header + Ethernet Payload + CRC

= 7 bytes + 1 byte + 14 bytes + (40 bytes + 6 bytes) + 4 bytes

= 72 bytes

Calculating Data Sent By Computer B in 0.6 Seconds-

Computer B sends 4 frames in 0.6 seconds.

So, Total bytes sent by computer B in 0.6 seconds

= 4 x 72 bytes

= 288 bytes

Calculating Total Data Sent in 0.6 Seconds:

Total data flow that takes place in 0.6 seconds

= Total data sent by computer A in 0.6 seconds + Total data sent by computer B in 0.6 seconds

= 12208 bytes + 288 bytes

= 12496 bytes

= 99968 bits

Calculating Throughput-

Throughput

= Amount of data that flows per second

= 99968 bits / 0.6 seconds

= 166613.33 bits/sec

Calculating Utilization-

Throughput = Efficiency x Bandwidth

So, Efficiency or Utilization

= Throughput / Bandwidth

= (166613.33 bits per sec) / 10 Mbps

= 0.017

= 1.7%

Thus, Option (B) is correct.

Problem-09:

Ethernet adaptor receives all frames and accepts-

Frames addressed to its own address
Frames addressed to the multicast or broadcast address
Frames if it has been placed in promiscuous mode
All of the above

Solution-

In a bus topology Ethernet,

Ethernet Adaptor enables a computer to access an Ethernet Network.
If one station sends a frame to other station, then other stations & Ethernet Adaptor also receives that frame.
But they accept only those frames which are destined for them.
Ethernet Adaptor accepts all those frames which are addressed to its own address or broadcast address or multicast address (if it is present in that multicast group)
Network administrator may set the network in promiscuous mode.
This is done to monitor the activities going on in the network.
So, if Ethernet Adaptor is set in promiscuous mode, it receives and accepts all the frames.
Thus, Option (D) is correct.

Next Article- Types of Switching | Circuit Switching

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Ethernet in Networking | Ethernet Frame Format

Computer Networks

Local Area Network-

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network of computers.
It is confined to a small area which may be a room, building or a group of buildings.
A LAN may be wired, wireless or a combination of the two.

LAN Technologies-

Standard technologies used to build a wired LAN are-

Ethernet
Token Ring

In this article, we will discuss about Ethernet and its Frame Format.

Ethernet-

Ethernet is one of the standard LAN technologies used for building wired LANs.
It is defined under IEEE 802.3.

Characteristics-

Point-01:

Ethernet uses bus topology.
In bus topology, all the stations are connected to a single half duplex link.

Point-02:

Ethernet uses CSMA / CD as access control method to deal with the collisions.

Point-03:

Ethernet uses Manchester Encoding Technique for converting data bits into signals.

Point-04:

For Normal Ethernet, operational bandwidth is 10 Mbps.
For Fast Ethernet, operational bandwidth is 100 Mbps.
For Gigabit Ethernet, operational bandwidth is 1 Gbps.

Ethernet Frame Format-

IEEE 802.3 defines the following Ethernet frame format-

1. Preamble-

It is a 7 byte field that contains a pattern of alternating 0’s and 1’s.
It alerts the stations that a frame is going to start.
It also enables the sender and receiver to establish bit synchronization.

2. Start Frame Delimiter (SFD)-

It is a 1 byte field which is always set to 10101011.
The last two bits “11” indicate the end of Start Frame Delimiter and marks the beginning of the frame.

NOTES

The above two fields are added by the physical layer and represents the physical layer header.
Sometimes, Start Frame Delimiter (SFD) is considered to be a part of Preamble.
That is why, at many places, Preamble field length is described as 8 bytes.

3. Destination Address-

It is a 6 byte field that contains the MAC address of the destination for which the data is destined.

4. Source Address-

It is a 6 byte field that contains the MAC address of the source which is sending the data.

5. Length-

It is a 2 byte field which specifies the length (number of bytes) of the data field.
This field is required because Ethernet uses variable sized frames.

NOTES

The maximum value that can be accommodated in this field = 2¹⁶– 1 = 65535.
But it does not mean maximum data that can be sent in one frame is 65535 bytes.
The maximum amount of data that can be sent in a Ethernet frame is 1500 bytes.
This is to avoid the monopoly of any single station.

The following three fields collectively represents the Ethernet Header–

Destination Address (6 bytes)
Source Address (6 bytes)
Length (2 bytes)

Thus, Ethernet Header Size = 14 bytes.

6. Data-

It is a variable length field which contains the actual data.
It is also called as a payload field.
The length of this field lies in the range [ 46 bytes , 1500 bytes ].
Thus, in a Ethernet frame, minimum data has to be 46 bytes and maximum data can be 1500 bytes.

Minimum Length of Data Field

Ethernet uses CSMA / CD as access control method to deal with collisions.
For detecting the collisions, CSMA / CD requires-

Minimum length of data packet = 2 x Propagation delay x Bandwidth

Substituting the standard values of Ethernet, it is found that minimum length of the Ethernet frame has to be 64 bytes starting from the destination address field to the CRC field and 72 bytes including the Preamble and SFD fields.
Therefore, minimum length of the data field has to be = 64 bytes – (6+6+2+4) bytes = 46 bytes

Maximum Length of Data Field

The maximum amount of data that can be sent in a Ethernet frame is 1500 bytes.
This is to avoid the monopoly of any single station.
If Ethernet allows the frames of big sizes, then other stations may not get the fair chance to send their data.

7. Frame Check Sequence (CRC)-

It is a 4 byte field that contains the CRC code for error detection.

Advantages of Using Ethernet-

It is simple to understand and implement.
Its maintenance is easy.
It is cheap.

Limitations of Using Ethernet-

Point-01:

It can not be used for real time applications.
Real time applications require the delivery of data within some time limit.
Ethernet is not reliable because of high probability of collisions.
High number of collisions may cause a delay in delivering the data to its destination.

Point-02:

It can not be used for interactive applications.
Interactive applications like chatting requires the delivery of even very small amount of data.
Ethernet requires that minimum length of the data must be 46 bytes.

Point-03:

It can not be used for client server applications.
Client server applications require that server must be given higher priority than clients.
Ethernet has no facility to set priorities.

Token Ring overcomes these limitations of Ethernet.

Important Concept-

For data transmission-

TCP segment sits inside the IP datagram payload field.
IP datagram sits inside the Ethernet payload field.

Next Article- Practice Problems On Ethernet

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